The work tells about the history of the Cosmonautics Day holiday and presents a brief biography of Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin.
50 years of the space age
Popularization of the world historical event - the entry into low-Earth orbit of the world's first manned spacecraft "VOSTOK-1" and the history of the development of space science in the USSR in the form of entertaining information products.
Academician Korolyov
The presentation, made in English, talks about the life and work of academician S.P. Korolev, his contribution to the development of astronautics. This work can be used in English lessons on the topics: "Famous people" or "Russian science: space exploration." The design work was prepared for the 50th anniversary of the first manned space flight.
Animal astronauts. Russian space dogs (orbital flights)
The work is dedicated to the 45th anniversary of the flight of the dogs Belka and Strelka into space - an event that made a huge contribution to the study of space. Text in English.
Black Holes
“Black holes” are invisible stars that absorb everything in their path, and no one knows where it goes! The work, in English, talks about black holes, where they are located and what danger they pose.
Flight and aerodynamics
This project, completed in English, is about the aerodynamic properties of the wing, the influence of these properties on the maneuverability and speed of the aircraft. The study is presented in development (from a historical perspective): from the first aircraft to modern ones, the changes that have occurred in the properties of the wing and their impact on the development of aircraft manufacturing are shown and analyzed.
Galileo's discoveries
Dedicated to the 400th anniversary of Galileo Galilei's discoveries... In 2009, the world community celebrated the 400th anniversary of the use of the telescope for space exploration. The United Nations has declared 2009 the “International Year of Astronomy”. Presentation in English about the life and work of Galileo.
Juri Gagarin - the man and the legend
Yuri Alexeyevich Gagarin, Hero of the Soviet Union, was a Soviet cosmonaut who became the first human in space and the first human to orbit the Earth.
Modern space exploration
The work contains information about modern space exploration, new space technologies, and projects to create new space stations and satellites. In this work we will talk about the Mars landing project, as well as the possibility of the existence of a planet similar to Earth.
Nile Olden Armstrong - the first man to walk on the moon
The presentation tells how Neil Armstrong misspoke (missed the indefinite article) when landing on the moon.
Our Future Dangerous Life
The work is devoted to possible future disasters. The authors believe that every person should know what awaits him in the future, and provide a description of the development of such probable threats.
We"re a Part of the Universe
During an exciting space journey, you will learn a lot of new and interesting things, conduct experiments, and admire our beautiful planet. The presentation was prepared in English.
Website "Cosmos"
This website represents interesting and educational material about cosmic bodies: comets, meteorites and asteroids.
What If The Sun Became a Black Hole?
This work was completed in English using the Power Point program and is an integrated product on physics, astronomy and English. The proposed material can be used in English, astronomy and physics lessons in schools where subjects are taught in English.
But still she spins
The work examines one of the mysteries of the Universe - the rotation of the Earth. The task set - to explain the change of day and night - is solved by analyzing the accumulated astronomical knowledge. Foucault's famous experiment proving the rotation of the Earth is described in detail.
Do we know the history of space exploration?
The paper examines the history of space exploration. The work is a multimedia presentation that can be an interesting tool for extracurricular activities.
And from our window you can see a little space
April 12, 2011 marked the 50th anniversary of the first human flight into space. Therefore, 2011 was declared the Year of Russian Cosmonautics. This research work is devoted to the study of such celestial bodies as the Sun, Moon, Jupiter. Armed with a telescope and encyclopedias, a 3rd grade student opened a “small window” into the “big space.”
"And I want to fly"
The work explores the reasons why humanity throughout its history has sought to conquer the sky. Interesting facts related to the exploration of the sky are presented. A survey of classmates on the topic of work was conducted.
Aviation
The work examines the state of aviation in the first years of the Great Patriotic War. Information is provided about aircraft designers, pilots - Heroes of the Soviet Union. The text of the work is illustrated with colorful drawings and photographs.
Aviation. Airplane models
The purpose of the work is to study how the shape of the wing and nose of an airplane model affects the duration and range of flight. For this purpose, a paper collection of airplane models with different wing and nose shapes has been created. An experiment was carried out to launch models to monitor the flight duration and range. The conclusion is drawn: the highest speed and flight range are achieved by aircraft with a sharp nose and narrow wings.
Agro-industrial complex of Yakutia: current state, problems and prospects for development
The main goal of the work is to study the current state, problems and prospects for the development of the agro-industrial complex of Yakutia. The work is intended for use in the study of the national (agricultural) economy of the republic.
America is an example of progress
The presentation in English provides information about objects of American origin, without which it is impossible to imagine our modern life. The work can be used as additional material on regional studies.
"Apache" vs. "Night Stalker"
The study is devoted to a comparison of the AN-64D Apache Longbow combat helicopters and the Mi-28N Night Hunter. The hypothesis of the study is the assumption that despite the fact that the Russian Mi-28N helicopter is considered an analogue of the American combat helicopter AN-64D Apache Longbow, it is significantly superior to the latter in its tactical and technical characteristics. The purpose of this work is a theoretical study, research and comparison of the unique performance characteristics of the Mi-28N and AN-64D combat helicopters.
Content
Introduction................................................. ................................................... 2
Section 1. The birth of stars.
1.1.Molecular cloud - stellar cradle....................................................2
1.2. Birth of a protostar................................................... .......................3
Section 2. Evolution of stars.
2.1. Harvard Spectralclassification of stars.........................4
2.2. Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Characteristics of main sequence stars.................................................... .....................................5
2.3. The structure of stars. Models of some types of stars.........................7
2.4. Further evolution of the star, exit from the main sequence.................................................... .........................................8
Section 3. The final stage of a star's evolution.
3.1.White dwarfs.................................................... ........................................9
3.2.Neutron stars.................................................... ..............................10
3.3.Black hole.................................................... ..........................................10
Section 4 .Life cycle of the Sun.................................................... ..........eleven
Conclusion................................................. ........................................... 12
Application to work........................................................ ................................13
List of used literature......................................................... ........18
Subject : “How are stars similar to people?”
Target: Study the main characteristics of stars, the evolution of their life path, find similarities between heavenly bodies and the inhabitants of the Earth, people.
Introduction
On Earth, the main characters are people, and in the Universe, the main objects are stars. 97% of the matter in our Galaxy is concentrated in stars.
There are countless stars. No one can say exactly how many stars there are, especially since stars, like people, are born and die. We can only roughly state that there are about 150,000,000,000 stars in our Galaxy, and an unknown number of billions of galaxies in the Universe... But how many stars can be seen in the sky with the naked eye is known more precisely: about 4.5 thousand. Stars are evolving objects, i.e. are in constant change and development. They, like people, are born, live and die.
1.The Birth of Stars
The closest star-forming regions to us are the dark clouds in the constellations of Taurus. Space is often called airless space, however, this is not so. Most of the "empty" space in a galaxy actually contains between 0.1 and 1 molecule per cm³. Interstellar space contains dust and gas. Interstellar gas is more than 67% hydrogen, 28% helium, and less than 5% all other elements, the most abundant of which are oxygen, carbon and nitrogen.
1.1Molecular cloud - called the stellar cradle.
Interstellar gas is mainly concentrated in the spiral arms of the Galaxy, and there it is divided into individual large molecular clouds.Appendix No. 1
A molecular cloud has a density of about a million molecules per cm³. The mass of such a cloud exceeds the mass of the Sun by 100,000-10,000,000 times, due to its size: from 50 to 300 light years in diameter, temperature about -200 ° C. While the cold rarefied cloud of interstellar gas rotates freely around the center of its native galaxy, nothing happens. But as soon as an external disturbance arises, slightly reducing the size of the cloud, then it occurs. For example, clouds could collide with each other, or one of them could pass through a dense arm of a spiral galaxy. Another factor could be a nearby explosion, the shock wave of which will collide with the molecular cloud at great speed. It is also possible that galaxies collide, which could cause a burst of star formation as the gas clouds in each galaxy are compressed by the collision.Appendix No. 2
It is under such conditions that individual densities in a cloud with a mass on the order of the mass of the Sun, unstable to gravitational compression, arise, which means that the formation of stars becomes possible.
Most molecular clouds are registered only by radio emission (there are only a few thousand of them in the Galaxy). Some, however, have long been known to astronomers, for example, the dark Coalsack Nebula, clearly visible to the eye in the southern part of the Milky Way. The diameter of this cloud is 12 pc, but it looks large because it is only 150 pc away from us. Its mass is about 5 thousand solar masses. The main centers of star formation are located in such giant molecular clouds.
1.2 The birth of a protostar.
Clouds are compressed under the influence of gravitational forces; during the compression process, part of the cloud becomes denser, decreasing in size and at the same time heating up. If a cloud is massive enough to form a star, it warms up so much that it begins to actively emit heat and, perhaps, glow faintly in a dark red color (even before the beginning of nuclear fusion), such a cloud is usually called a protostar (pre-star).Appendix No. 3
At the beginning, the protostar's radius is about a million times larger than the Sun's. It is completely opaque to visible light, but transparent to infrared radiation with a wavelength greater than 10 microns. Radiation carries away excess heat released during compression, so that the temperature does not increase and the gas pressure does not prevent collapse, i.e. there is a rapid compression, an almost free fall of matter towards the center of the cloud.
However, as the protostar contracts, it becomes less and less transparent, which makes it difficult for radiation to escape and leads to an increase in gas temperature. At a certain point, the protostar becomes almost opaque to its own thermal radiation. The temperature, and with it the gas pressure, quickly increases, and compression slows down. The protostar quickly reaches a state where the force of gravity is almost balanced by the internal pressure of the gas.
As soon as the temperature at the center of the protostar reaches 10,000,000 K, nuclear fusion begins, resulting in 4 hydrogen nuclei combining into one helium nucleus. The process of thermonuclear fusion, which releases energy and changes the composition of the star's matter, in combination with gravity, are the main driving forces of stellar evolution.
The compression of the protostar is stopped by light pressure, and it becomes a star.
The evolution of a star begins in a giant molecular cloud, also called a stellar cradle.
The process of star birth is a long one. It all depends on the mass, how quickly the protostar turns into a star. Stars like the Sun (yellow dwarfs) spend 30,000,000 years at this stage of their birth, stars three times more massive (blue giants) - 100,000 years, and stars ten times less massive (red dwarfs) - 100,000,000 years. So, massive stars are born faster, but small stars are formed much more often than large ones. Astronomers are able to quite accurately determine the places where star birth is occurring or has recently occurred. Star formation regions are usually identified by the presence of massive, hot and bright stars. Their lifespan is short, and therefore the presence of these stars is a clear indication that they were born somewhere nearby over the next millions of years. Molecular clouds, these "star factories", produce stars of all kinds. On average, about a dozen stars with a total mass of about five solar masses are born in the Galaxy every year.
About half of stars are born single; the rest form double, triple and more complex systems. The more components there are, the rarer such systems are. The birth of twins and more is also inherent in humanity. Stars containing up to seven components are known; more complex ones have not yet been discovered.Appendix No. 4
The reasons for the appearance of double and multiple stars are quite clear: the initial rotation of the gas cloud does not allow it to collapse into one compact star. The more the cloud compresses, the faster it rotates (the well-known “skater effect”, which is a consequence of the law of conservation of angular momentum). The centrifugal forces that increase during compression first make the cloud flat, like a cheesecake, and then stretch it into a “melon” and tear it in half. Each of the halves, compressing further, continues to move in orbit around the common center of mass. If further compression does not tear it apart, then a double star is formed, and if the division continues, a more complex multiple system is born.
If the mass of the compressed substance is sufficient for nuclear reactions to begin to occur within it during the compression process, then a star emerges from such a cloud.
If the collapsing cloud is less massive, but is not less massive than the Sun by more than a hundred times, such clouds form so-called brown dwarfs. Brown dwarfs are even cooler than red stars. These objects are heated quite strongly by the forces of gravitational compression and emit a lot of heat (infrared radiation), but barely glow. But nuclear reactions with gas pressure from the inside stop releasing new portions of energy, and brown dwarfs cool down in a relatively short time.
2. Evolution of stars.
Stellar evolution in astronomy is the sequence of changes that a star undergoes during its life, that is, over hundreds of thousands, millions or billions of years while it emits light and heat. Over such enormous periods of time, the changes are quite significant.
Astronomers cannot observe the life of one star from beginning to end, because even the shortest-lived stars exist for millions of years - longer than the life of all humanity. Changes in the physical characteristics and chemical composition of stars over time, i.e. Astronomers study stellar evolution by comparing the characteristics of many stars at different stages of evolution.
Astronomers' study of a large number of stars has shown that they differ significantly from each other, just like people. They have different masses, sizes, temperatures, luminosities, and even differ in color. There are giant stars whose radii are hundreds and thousands of times greater than the solar radius. And, conversely, there are dwarf stars whose radii are tens and hundreds of times smaller than the radius of the Sun. In humans, a similar deviation from the norm also occurs. There are people who are giant dwarfs. Among humanity, representatives of different races differ in skin color.Appendix No. 5
2.1. Harvard Spectral classification of stars
As it turned out, among hundreds of thousands of stars it is difficult to detect stars emitting the same spectra. Stars, like people, are individual. And yet, by analyzing stellar spectra, aHarvard Spectral classification of stars by spectral types, by color: O, B, A - hot or early,F, G- sunny, K, M - cold late. The color of a star directly depends on its temperature. For example, a starArcturus from the constellation Boötesyellow-orange, Rigel from the constellation Orion - white-blue, Antarres from the constellation Scorpio - bright red.
Appendix No. 6
(14.Slide) The hottest stars are blue, and the coldest are red. The hottest stars are blue, and the coldest are red.
Spectral classification of stars
Range.
Class
Main lines
Tempera-
tour, thousand K
Color
N, N, Not
40-28
blue
No, N
28-10
white-blue
10-7
white
N,Ga
yellow-white
Ga, Fe, Ti
yellow
Fe, Ti
5-3,5
orange
Ti ABOUT
3,5-2.5.
red
The lifespan of a star and what it turns into at the end of its life is entirely determined by its mass. Birth and death are insignificant moments in the life of a star.
2.2 Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Characteristics of main sequence stars.
The Danish astronomer E. Hertzsprung and the American astronomer G. Russell in 1905-1913 established the existence of a relationship between stellar luminosity and temperature and depicted it in the form of a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. The point of the entire GR diagram is to put on it as many experimentally observed stars as possible (each of which is represented by a corresponding point) and, by their location, to determine certain patterns of their distribution in terms of the ratio of spectrum and luminosity.
As it turned out, the stars do not fill the field of the diagram evenly, but form several sequences. From an evolutionary point of view, the main sequence is the place on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram where a star spends most of its life. Young low-mass stars (up to three solar masses) approaching the main sequence are completely convective. These are essentially protostars, in the center of which nuclear reactions are just beginning, and all radiation occurs mainly due to gravitational compression. That is, the luminosity of a star decreases at a constant effective temperature. As the young star approaches the main sequence, the compression slows down.
For a star located on the main sequence, energy losses due to radiation are compensated by the energy released during nuclear reactions. The radiation of stars is maintained mainly by two types of thermonuclear reactions. In massive stars these are carbon-nitrogen cycle reactions, while in low-mass stars like the Sun these are proton-proton reactions. In the first, carbon plays the role of a catalyst: it is not consumed itself, but promotes the transformation of other elements, as a result of which 4 hydrogen nuclei are combined into one helium nucleus. Thus, by “burning” hydrogen in the process of a thermonuclear reaction, the star does not allow the forces of gravitational attraction to compress itself to a super-dense state, countering the gravitational collapse with continuously renewed internal thermal pressure, resulting in a stable energy equilibrium. Stars actively burning hydrogen are said to be in the "primary phase" of their life cycle or evolution. The more massive the star, the greater the supply of hydrogen fuel it has, but to counteract the forces of gravitational collapse it must burn hydrogen at an intensity that exceeds the growth rate of hydrogen reserves as the mass of the star increases. Thus, the more massive the star, the shorter its lifetime, determined by the depletion of hydrogen reserves, and the largest stars literally burn out in “some” tens of millions of years. The smallest stars, on the other hand, live comfortably for hundreds of billions of years. So, on this scale, our Sun belongs to the “strong middle class”.
90% of the stars closest to the Sun form a main sequence, crossing the field of the diagram from its upper left corner to the lower right. In the lower right corner there are stars of late spectral typesK, M with low luminosity are red dwarfs. In the upper left corner are stars of early spectral classes O, B - blue giants; in the middle of the sequence is the Sun and similar stars - yellow dwarfs.
Above the main sequence is a group of late-class giantsG,K, M. with high luminosity (Pollux from the constellation Gemini). In the upper right corner there are supergiants (Betelgeuse from the constellation Orion). There is one giant for every 1000 main sequence stars, and one supergiant for every 1000 giants. . The red giants and supergiants in the upper right corner are stars living out their lives with their outer shell swollen to the limit (in 6.5 billion years, our Sun will suffer the same fate - its outer shell will go beyond the orbit of Venus). They emit approximately the same amount of energy into space as the main series stars, but since the surface area through which this energy is emitted exceeds the surface area of the young star by several orders of magnitude, the surface of the giant itself remains relatively cold.
Below the main sequence there is a sequence of subdwarfs and white dwarfs with low luminosity. These are very hot stars - but very small, usually no larger than our Earth. Therefore, emitting relatively little energy into space, they, due to the very small (compared to other stars) area of their surface shell, glow in a fairly bright spectrum, since it turns out to be quite high-temperature.
In general, using the Hertzspruntz-Russell diagram you can trace the entire life path of a star. First, a main sequence star (like the Sun) condenses from a gas-dust cloud (see Gas-Dust Cloud Hypothesis) and condenses to create the pressures and temperatures necessary to ignite the primary fusion reaction, and accordingly appears somewhere in the main sequence GR diagram. While the star is burning (hydrogen reserves are not exhausted), it remains (like the Sun now) in its place in the main sequence, practically without moving. After the hydrogen supply is depleted, the star first overheats and inflates to the size of a red giant or supergiant, moving to the upper right corner of the diagram, and then cools and contracts to the size of a white dwarf, ending up at the bottom left. In fact, these three sequences on the HR diagram strictly correspond to the three stages of the life cycle of stars.
The diagram also shows the dependence of the location of the star on its mass. Massive stars are located above the main sequence. It should be noted that stars of the same spectral class, i.e. temperatures can be giants and dwarfs, astronomers distinguish them by the type of spectral lines (width, intensity.) The proposed table traces the dependence of the lifespan of a star on the main sequence on its mass.
The intensity of energy release (luminosity) of stars increases very quickly with increasing mass. Small, cool red dwarfs slowly burn up their hydrogen reserves and remain on the main sequence for hundreds of billions of years, while massive supergiants will leave the main sequence within a few million years of formation. Therefore, more massive stars burn their fuel much faster than low-mass ones.
The bright, massive stars of the upper main sequence (spectral classes O, B, and A) have significantly shorter lifespans than stars like the Sun and the even less massive members of the lower main sequence. Therefore, stars of classes O, B and A that were born simultaneously with the Sun have long since completed their evolution, and those that are observed now (for example, in the constellation Orion) should have been born relatively recently. In the vicinity of the Sun there are stars of different physical and evolutionary ages.
Characteristics of main sequence stars
Spectrum class
Mass, Ms
Radius,
R With
Luminosity L With
Life time on GP, years
Tempera-
tour, thousand K
Color
17- 3, 2
9-2,8
30 000-100
8 ∙10 6 -400 ∙10 6
28-10
white-blue
3,2-1,5
2,8-1,25
100-4,8
400 ∙10 6 - 4 ∙10 9
10-7
white
1,5-1,02
1,25-1,2
4,8-1,2
4 ∙10 9 -11∙10 9
yellow-white
1,02-0,74
1,02-0,74
1,2-0,35
11∙10 9 -17∙10 9
yellow
0,74-0,31
0,74-0,33
0,35-0,03
17∙10 9 -280 ∙10 9
5-3,5
orange
2.3. The structure of stars. Models of some types of stars.
The structure of stars depends on the mass and the place it occupies on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram.Appendix No. 7
In the interiors of bright stars of the upper part of the main sequence, intense mixing of matter occurs (convection), like boiling water. This region is called the convective core of the star. The larger the star, the larger part of it is the convective core, which contains the source of energy. Energy is transferred from the nucleus by radiation.
Stars of the lower main sequence (red dwarfs) do not have a convective core. Thermonuclear reactions occur in the central part of the nucleus, which is the radiant energy transfer zone. In the central region, hydrogen burns, turning into helium. The transfer of energy to the surface of the star is carried out by convection, with the transfer of matter. When hydrogen burns completely, the stars slowly contract and, due to the compression energy, can exist for a very long time.
The sun and similar stars represent an intermediate case. The Sun has a small convective core, but not very clearly separated from the rest. Nuclear reactions of hydrogen combustion occur both in the core and in its surroundings. Immediately around the nucleus, a zone of radiative energy transfer begins, where it spreads through the absorption and emission of portions of light - quanta - by the substance. Density, temperature and pressure decrease as you move away from the core, and energy flows in the same direction. Overall, this process is extremely slow. The transfer of energy from the center to the surface (photosphere) lasts millions of years. On its way through the inner solar layers, the energy flow encounters a region where the opacity of the gas greatly increases. This is the convective zone of the Sun. Here energy is transferred not by radiation, but by convection. Huge streams of hot gas rise upward, where they give up their heat to the environment, and cooled solar gas falls down.
Red giants have a central small isothermal core made of helium, the temperature within which is the same. This core is surrounded by a narrow zone in which nuclear reactions occur, then a small radiant zone. Next comes a wide layer where energy is transferred by convection. White dwarfs are homogeneous and consist of degenerate gas.
2.4. Further evolution of the star, exit from the main sequence. Red giant star, supernova explosion.
Among the methods of astronomy, otherwise methods of astronomical research, three main groups can be distinguished:
- observations,
- measurements,
- space experiment.
Let's take a short overview of these methods.
Astronomical observations
Note 1
Astronomical observations are the main way to study celestial bodies and events. It is with their help that what is happening in near and far space is recorded. Astronomical observations are the main source of knowledge obtained experimentally
Astronomical observations and processing of their data are usually carried out in specialized research institutions (astronomical observatories).
The first Russian observatory was built in Pulkovo, near St. Petersburg. The compilation of star catalogs with the highest accuracy is the merit of the Pulkovo Observatory. We can say that in the second half of the 19th century, behind the scenes, it was awarded the title of “astronomical capital of the world,” and in 1884 Pulkovo laid claim to the prime meridian (Greenwich won).
Modern observatories are equipped with observational instruments (telescopes), light-receiving and analyzing equipment, various auxiliary instruments, high-performance computers, etc.
Let us dwell on the features of astronomical observations:
- Feature No. 1. Observations are very inert, therefore, as a rule, they require quite long periods. Active influence on space objects, with rare exceptions provided by manned and unmanned astronautics, is difficult. Basically, many phenomena, such as the transformation of the angle of inclination of the Earth’s axis to the orbital plane, can only be recorded through observations over several thousand years. Consequently, the astronomical heritage of Babylon and China from a thousand years ago, despite some inconsistencies with modern requirements, is still relevant.
- Feature No. 2. The observation process, as a rule, occurs from the earth's surface, at the same time the Earth carries out a complex movement, so the earthly observer sees only a certain section of the starry sky.
- Feature No. 3. Angular measurements made on the basis of observations are the basis for calculations that determine the linear dimensions of objects and the distance to them. And since the angular sizes of stars and planets measured using optics do not depend on the distance to them, calculations can be quite inaccurate.
Note 2
The main instrument for astronomical observations is an optical telescope.
An optical telescope has a principle of operation determined by its type. But regardless of the type, its main goal and task is to collect the maximum amount of light emitted by luminous objects (stars, planets, comets, etc.) to create their images.
Types of optical telescopes:
- refractors (lens),
- reflectors (mirror),
- as well as mirror-lens ones.
In a refractor (lens) telescope, the image is achieved by the refraction of light in the objective lens. The disadvantage of refractors is the error resulting from image blur.
A special feature of reflectors is their use in astrophysics. The main thing in them is not how the light is refracted, but how it is reflected. They are more advanced than lens ones and more accurate.
Mirror-lens telescopes combine the functions of refractors and reflectors.
Figure 1. Small optical telescope. Author24 - online exchange of student works
Astronomical measurements
Since measurements in astronomical research are carried out using various devices and instruments, we will give them a short review.
Note 3
The main astronomical measuring instruments are coordinate measuring machines.
These machines measure one or two rectangular coordinates from a photographic image or spectrum diagram. Coordinate measuring machines are equipped with a table on which photographs are placed and a microscope with measuring functions used to focus on a luminous body or its spectrum. Modern instruments can have a reading accuracy of up to 1 micron.
Errors may occur during the measurement process:
- the instrument itself,
- operator (human factor),
- arbitrary.
Tool errors arise from its imperfection, therefore, it must first be checked for accuracy. In particular, the following must be checked: scales, micrometer screws, guides on the object table and measuring microscope, and reading micrometers.
Errors associated with the human factor and randomness are mitigated by the multiplicity of measurements.
In astronomical measurements, there is a widespread introduction of automatic and semi-automatic measuring instruments.
Automatic devices work an order of magnitude faster than conventional ones, and have half the mean square error.
Space experiment
Definition 1
A space experiment is a set of interconnected interactions and observations that make it possible to obtain the necessary information about the celestial body or phenomenon under study, carried out in space flight (manned or unmanned) in order to confirm theories, hypotheses, as well as improve various technologies that can contribute to development of scientific knowledge.
Main trends in experiments in space:
- Study of the occurrence of physical and chemical processes and the behavior of materials in outer space.
- Study of the properties and behavior of celestial bodies.
- The influence of space on humans.
- Confirmation of theories of space biology and biotechnology.
- Ways of space exploration.
Here it is appropriate to give examples of experiments conducted on the ISS by Russian cosmonauts.
Plant Growing Experiment (Veg-01).
The objective of the experiment is to study the behavior of plants in orbital conditions.
Experiment "Plasma Crystal"- study of plasma-dust crystals and liquid substances under microgravity parameters.
Four stages were carried out:
- The plasma-dust structure in a gas-discharge plasma during a high-frequency capacitive discharge was studied.
- The plasma-dust structure in plasma during a glow discharge with a constant current was studied.
- We studied how the ultraviolet spectrum of cosmic radiation affects macroparticles that can be charged by photoemission.
- Plasma-dust structures in open space under the influence of solar ultraviolet and ionizing radiation were studied.
Figure 2. Experiment "Plasma Crystal". Author24 - online exchange of student works
In total, Russian cosmonauts conducted more than 100 space experiments on the ISS.
Regional scientific conference for junior schoolchildren
Section "Physics"
Celestial bodies
student of 2 "A" class
GBOU secondary school No. 2 village. Volga region
Head: Tumanovskaya Tatyana Nikolaevna
primary school teacher
GBOU secondary school No. 2 village. Volga region
With. Volga region
| Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….. | ||
| Main part | ||
| Chapter 1. Theoretical part: | ||
| 1.1. Telescope…………………………………………………… | ||
| 1.2. How to use a telescope……………………………. | ||
| 1.3. Astronomical binoculars………………………………. | ||
| 1.4. What are stars……………………………………………………………... | ||
| 1.5. What is a constellation……………………………………………………….. | ||
| 1.6. Treasures of the Solar System…………………………. | ||
| Chapter 2. Practical part: | ||
| 2.1. Observing celestial objects in different ways... | ||
| 2.2. How to fix the identified problem………………….. | ||
| Conclusion…………………………………………………………….. | ||
| Literature……………………………………………………………... |
I. Introduction
I, Revina Ksenia, study in grade 2 “A”. By nature, I am a very inquisitive person. Even during the lessons of the surrounding world in the 1st grade, I became interested in topics about the starry sky. A friend of our family, a teacher of physics and astronomy, Vladimir Nikolaevich Astashin, aroused my great interest in this topic. Every time he comes to visit us, he brings a telescope and observes individual objects in the sky, and photographs these objects.
For me, the study of celestial bodies became relevant, because In recent years, the school curriculum has lacked the subject of astronomy and this topic can only be studied independently or in a study group.
Object of study: starry sky near st. Lermontova s. Volga region at different times of the day.
Item: celestial bodies.
Purpose of the study: introductory
Tasks, that need to be solved to achieve the goal:
study the purpose of astronomical binoculars and telescopes;
learn how to use a telescope;
conduct comparative observations of celestial bodies in different ways (with the naked eye, using astronomical binoculars and using a telescope);
prepare a photo report on the observed objects in the form of a presentation;
Conduct a conversation with students in the class based on the results of the work.
Hypothesisresearch: It can be assumed that the work I have done will arouse interest in studying and observing the starry sky among other students.
In my work I used the following methods.
Research methods:
collecting information from books, Internet resources;
conversation with a physics and astronomy teacher, with a librarian;
observation using astronomical binoculars and the Celestron telescope;
photography;
generalization of the obtained data.
II . Main part
Chapter 1. Theoretical part
Traveling to other stars is the cherished dream of humanity. But even from the nearest luminaries we are separated by such gigantic distances that a space expedition still seems completely unrealistic.
You can learn a lot of interesting things by observing the starry sky.
The science that studies stars is calledastronomy (from the Greek aster - “star”).
1.1. Telescope
To observe the stars, a special device was invented -telescope . Telescope is translated from Greek as “I see far” - an instrument that helps in observing distant objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation (such as visible light).
The telescope is a tube (solid, frame) mounted on a mount equipped with axes for pointing at and tracking the object of observation. A visual telescope has a lens and an eyepiece. The rear focal plane of the lens is aligned with the front focal plane of the eyepiece. Instead of an eyepiece, photographic film or a matrix radiation receiver can be placed in the focal plane of the lens. The telescope is focused using a focuser (focusing device). In addition, to observe the Sun, professional astronomers use special solar telescopes, which differ in design from traditional stellar telescopes.
There are telescopes for all ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum: optical telescopes, radio telescopes, X-ray telescopes, gamma-ray telescopes.
1.2. How to use a telescope
First you need to configure the telescope.
Before further work with the telescope, you need to make sure that it is on a flat surface and that there are no sources of crumbs or dust near it that could damage the optics of the device.
Before looking through a telescope for the first time, it is important to check that you have a solar filter. Working with a telescope without it is extremely dangerous and can cause vision impairment. Observe the Sun with caution and do not focus on it for a long time, otherwise the temperature-sensitive parts of the telescope's optics may overheat and become unusable.
If you are using the device to record your observations, always perform the setup again after connecting and disconnecting the camera.
If a child under 15 years of age uses the telescope, then adults must be present next to him.
1.3. Astronomical binoculars
Astronomical binoculars (binoculars)
- binoculars designed for observing astronomical objects: the Moon, planets and their satellites, stars and their clusters, nebulae, galaxies, etc. 
Binoculars are easy to point at the desired celestial object, so they are widely used for observing the night sky, even with a telescope.
A stereoscopic image is not possible even for distant ground-based objects, but using two eyes at once makes it easier to observe the starry sky (in particular, there is no need to squint). Astronomy enthusiasts typically use prism binoculars, either field or military. Unlike telescopes, astrobinoculars' eyepieces are not removable.
With the help of telescopes, astronomers at special stations, observatories, observe and study the starry sky.
1.4. What are stars
Star is a massive ball of gas emitting light.
The closest star to Earth isSun .
The sun is many times larger than the globe. If you imagine the Earth in the form of a grain of millet, then the Sun will be the size of a large watermelon.
Earth and Sun (photomontage maintaining size ratio)
Thiso a frequently encountered yellow star, which scientists named the Sun, after the ancient Roman name. That's why our system of planets is calledsolar system
. There are trillions of other stars inINuniverse, the same as our Sun. Many of these stars have their own planetary systems, moons, asteroids and comets. The solar system consists of planets that revolve around our sun. In addition to planets, the Solar System also consists of moons, comets, asteroids, minor planets, dust and gas. 
Light from the Sun can reach Earth in just 8 minutes! This is the speed of light. The Sun is located almost 93 million miles from Earth (that's about 145 million km).
1.5. What is a constellation
A long time ago, people, looking at the starry sky, noticed that some clusters of stars resembled figures of people, mythical heroes, animals, objects, and astronomers called such clusters of starsconstellations.
Knowing the constellations is the ABC of astronomy, but it is necessary not only for astronomers. Pilots, sailors, tourists, travelers, and scouts often navigate by the stars.
1.6. Treasures of the Solar System
Let's look at some celestial objects to which, in the practical part of my work, we paid special attention and took photographs of them.
Moon
is a companion of the Earth in outer space. This the only natural satellite and the celestial body closest to us. The average distance to the Moon is 384,000 kilometers. Every month the Moon makes a complete journey around the Earth. It glows only with light reflected from the Sun, so that constantly one half of the Moon, facing the Sun, is illuminated, and the other is immersed in darkness. How much of the illuminated half of the Moon is visible to us at a given moment depends on the position of the Moon in its orbit around the Earth. As the Moon moves through its orbit, its shape appears to us to be gradually but continuously changing. The different visible shapes of the Moon are called its phases. On some days the Moon is not visible at all in the sky. On other days it looks like a narrow sickle, a semicircle and a full circle. The Moon, like the Earth, is a dark, opaque round body. The full cycle of phases ends and begins to repeat every 29.59 days. The Moon rotates relative to the Sun with a period equal to a synodic month, so a day on the Moon lasts almost 1.5 days and the night lasts the same amount. Not being protected by the atmosphere, the surface of the Moon heats up to + 110 ° C during the day, and cools down to -120 ° C at night. Even with the naked eye, irregular darkish extended spots are visible on the Moon, which were mistaken for seas; the name was preserved, although it was established that these formations have nothing in common with the earth’s seas. Telescopic observations, which were started in 1610 by Galileo, made it possible to discover the mountainous structure of the surface of the Moon. 
Moon (real image from the Celestron telescope 07/26/2015)
Earth and Moon (photomontage maintaining size ratio)
The next stop on our journey through the solar system is one of the most exciting.Planet Saturn is the farthest planet that can be seen from Earth without a telescope.
It is the sixth planet from the Sun, a huge and bright gas giant surrounded by thousands of sparkling rings. It’s interesting that the closer you are to the planet, the more you can see. What may initially seem like two large rings actually consists of thousands of small ones and together is the Saturn system. Around all this beauty there is a system of 62 moons, from dwarf satellites to giants. Seven of them are large enough to be of interest for our study. All this is the planet Saturn with its mysterious system of rings and satellites.
Saturn (photomontage)
Undoubtedly, the most striking feature of the Saturn system is its rings. This entire complex is a large accumulation of ice particles. Their size varies from specks of dust to large ice floes the size of a car. Although they have a circumference of 282,000 kilometers, they are only about a mile thick. It is because of this that, when viewed from the outside, the rings are not visible. The rings of Saturn were first observed through a telescope by Galileo Galilei in 1610. The first studies showed that the planet has only two rings. But later, thanks to expeditions to the solar system, it turned out that there are many more rings. Recent observations show that the whole thing is a very complex structure of thick and thin regions and spiral clusters. In addition, it turned out that some rings are in one place due to the gravitational force of small satellites, which are commonly called Shepherd Satellites.
Saturn (real image from the Celestron telescope 07/26/2015)
Some of Saturn's small moons orbit either within the rings or very close to them. Their gravity aligns the rings in straight lines, and they are the reason for the gaps between the rings. It is these satellites that are called the Shepherd Moons, due to the effect of gathering rings together.
Chapter 2. Practical part
2.1. Observing celestial objects in different ways
Conversation and work together with the teacher of physics and astronomy of the MBOU Aviation Lyceum No. 135 - Vladimir Nikolaevich Astashin.
While observing celestial bodies, I had many questions, to which Vladimir Nikolaevich gave me comprehensive answers. He explained what a telescope is and showed how to work with it correctly.
For comparison, I observed celestial objects at different times of the day in several ways:
naked eye;
using astronomical binoculars;
using a telescope.
I made very interesting conclusions for myself. For example, we see 1 star in the sky with the naked eye, but in fact it may be a double star that can only be seen through a telescope (this is the Albireo star).
During the daytime, we observed sunspots on the Sun using a telescope.
In the evening and at night we looked at the lunar surface, on which craters and “seas” were clearly visible. I saw what the planet Saturn looks like; The Andromeda nebula is the closest large galaxy to the Milky Way.
We looked at star clusters: the Pleiades and the globular star cluster M-13 in Hercules.
I also met new constellations:
constellation Hercules;
constellation Perseus;
The asterism constellation Cassiopeia is one of the most remarkable not only in the northern hemisphere, but also in the entire starry sky. Cassiopeia has the characteristic appearance of the Latin letter W or an inverted M;
Now I know the brightest stars: Vega, Arcturus, Deneb, Altair.
On the night of August 12-13, 2015, we observed a phenomenon called a “starfall” - the Perseids - a meteor shower that appears annually in August from the direction of the constellation Perseus. Formed as a result of the Earth passing through a plume of dust particles released by Comet Swift-Tuttle. The smallest particles, the size of a grain of sand, burn in the earth's atmosphere, forming star rain. At first it “spills” with the greatest force, then gradually weakens.
While observing at night, I noticed that in the area of the sky in the area of our Lermontov Street there were airlines: several planes flew over us both in one direction and in the opposite direction. It turns out that at night you can also observe a large number of moving satellites, including the ISS (International Space Station).
Based on the results of observations in the application, I compiled a photo report in the form of a presentation.
2.2. How to fix the identified problem
Conversation with the librarian of the Central Children's Library Nina Vasilievna Meshcherekova.
During the research, I needed to study additional specialized literature. I contacted the Central Children's Library. Volga region to the librarian Nina Vasilievna Meshcherekova.
Here's what she answered to my questions:
1. Are there many books about space in the children's library?
- Unfortunately, our library has a small number of books on this topic.
2. How often do children turn to special literature about the starry sky?
- Very rarely.
Hence, there was a problem : little interest of children in studying specialized literature and observing the starry sky.
How to fix the identified problem?
I think it is necessary:
Draw students' attention to the relevance of topics about space. There are many interesting celestial objects around us that we can observe every day, but we know very little about them.
Prepare and conduct a class hour “Riddles of the Starry Sky” for primary school students.
III . Conclusion
At one of the class hours, I had a conversation with the students in the class based on the results of my work. I asked them a few questions:
Do you like to look at the stars? And tilt your head back to look for familiar constellations, stars and planets? (Everyone answered yes).
Did you like my story about observing the starry sky?
Most of the guys answered that they really liked my story, and they also wanted to read books about celestial bodies, but most of all they wanted to look through a telescope, which confirms my hypothesis , put forward at the beginning of the work.
In conclusion of my work, I would like to note the following.
The star dome above us is a boundless world full of secrets and mysteries. And studying it is an incredibly interesting and mind-blowing process.
I really enjoyed observing celestial objects and learning something new about them. I hope that in the future I will also have the opportunity to observe using special astronomical instruments. And perhaps next time I will talk about one of the celestial bodies in more detail.
IV . While working on the topic, I became acquainted with the following literature:
Space: [encyclopedia: for ml. school age] / [ed. : Zhitomirsky S.V. [etc.]; comp. A. V. Volkova; artist A. G. Danilova [and others]. - M.: ROSMEN, 2010. - 95 pp.: color. ill. - (My first encyclopedia). - Decree. : With. 94-95.
Levitan E.P. Fairy-tale Universe: a fascinating encyclopedia for future astronomers and cosmonauts, as well as for all inquisitive children: [for younger. school age] / Efrem Levitan; [art. T. Gamzina-Bakhtiy]. - M.: Publishing house. Meshcheryakov House, 2010. - 503, p. : color ill.
Petya’s extraordinary adventures in space: [for reading by adults to children] / [text by A. Ivanov, M. Malorossiyanovskaya; rice. K. Elkina]. - M.: Clever-Media-Group, 2011. - p. : color ill.
Portsevsky K. A. My first book about space: [for juniors. school age] / K. A. Portsevsky; [ill. A. I. Bezmenova, A. G. Danilova, N. V. Danilchenko and others; issued series by L. D. Andreev]. - M.: ROSMEN, 2011. - 95 p. : color ill. - (My first book). - Indication: p. 94-95.
Rancini J. Cosmos. Supernova atlas of the Universe: ill. reference with constellation maps / Gianluca Ranzini; [transl. from Italian G. Semenova]. - M.: Eksmo, 2010. - 216 p. : color ill. – Word: p. 213-214. - Alf. decree: p. 215-216.
Farndon D. Children's encyclopedia of space: [for children preschool. age] / John Farndon; lane from English N. Concha. - M.: Eksmo, 2011. - 144 pp.: color. ill. - Words. : With. 138-142. - Indication: p. 143-144.
Dreamers. Journey into space [Electronic resource]: [developmental program: for children from 5 years old] / author. programs: I.L. Tuychieva, O.N. Gornitskaya, T.V. Vorobyova, A.Yu. Kremlev. - M.: New Disk, 2011. - 1 electron. wholesale disk (CD-ROM): sound, color. - (Creative workshop for children).
Brashnov D. Amazing astronomy: [from the series: What the textbooks were silent about] / Dmitry Brashnov. – ENAS-book, 2014. – 200 pp.: color. ill. 61.